Sports motivation, mind games and goal setting

We all tend to have a thousand things running through our minds at any one moment. But, when you need to focus it becomes important to be able to control these thoughts - one such example is in sport. All worries, anxieties and mental goals circulating an athletes head can contribute to slipping mentally at a vital point.

One of the major difficulties for coaches working with groups of athletes with diverse motives and goals is to create a motivational climate that facilitates the development of all these motives - or at least as many as possible.

Motivation has been defined as 'the direction and intensity of ones efforts'. In sport, direction refers to the decision to commit and to turn up to training on a regular basis. The intensity dimension is about how much people are prepared to give in each training session. It's worth noting that the motivational climate created by the coach will impact on the motivation of the athletes under his or her guidance.

For example, when I was a teenager I harboured dreams of being a professional football player. However, the main reasons I played football were because I enjoyed it and because I wanted to master my chosen position of goalkeeper. I remember playing for two clubs during this period, under coaches whose approach to training and motivation could not have been more different.

Drill sergeant

The first coach acted like a drill sergeant in training, continually shouting instructions and berating players for the smallest of mistakes. His motivational climate was one of fear and intimidation, in which players became afraid to make mistakes. Feedback would usually focus on what had gone wrong and praise was rarely offered.

As a group we quickly came to understand that when the coach stopped shouting he was satisfied. Although he was reasonably successful, most players disliked him and I soon felt it was time to move on. This example demonstrates the negative approach to coaching and motivation, which relies on negative reinforcement to shape behaviour, so that players do exactly what the coach requires in order to avoid punishment and/or humiliation.

I enjoyed my training and played much better football when I went on to work with a coach whose approach was primarily positive. Rather than using negative reinforcement, the positive approach focuses on using praise to reinforce the behaviour desired by the coach.

Contrasting Styles

The work of the psychologist BF Skinner has led to a more complete understanding of what is termed operant conditioning, whereby behaviour becomes either more or less likely depending on its consequences. The theory is that if you reward or reinforce behaviours they are more likely to occur again, while punishment is more likely to reduce the chances of that behaviour occurring in future. Both rewards and punishments can be used as motivators. So, to avoid confusion, you must think of positive and negative in this case in terms of either adding something or taking something away, not in terms of good or bad (see box and table below).

How operant conditioning works

Operant conditioning forms an association between a behaviour and a consequence.
There are four possible consequences to any behaviour, as follows:

Something good can start or be presented;

• Something good can end or be taken away;
• Something bad can start or be presented;
• Something bad can end or be taken away.

Anything that increases a behaviour - makes it occur more frequently, makes it stronger or makes it more likely to occur - is termed a reinforcer. Normally a person will perceive 'starting something good' (positive reinforcement) or 'ending something bad' (negative reinforcement) as worth pursuing and will repeat the behaviours that seem to cause these consequences.

Anything that decreases a behaviour - makes it occur less frequently, makes it weaker, or makes it less likely to occur - is termed a punisher. Normally a person will perceive 'ending something good' (negative punishment) or 'starting something bad' (positive punishment) as worth avoiding and will not repeat the behaviours that seem to cause these consequences.
Note that these definitions are based on their actual effect on the behaviour in question - ie they must reduce or strengthen the behaviour to be defined as punishment or reinforcement. These processes are illustrated in graphic form in the table below.

Table 1: Types of reinforcement and punishment

Stimulus added Stimulus removed Behaviour increases Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement   Giving praise to a football striker for a quick turn and shot at goal makes this behaviour more likely to occur again. A coach who continually shouts criticism at his players becomes quiet and thus conveys his satisfaction. More likely to occur again. Behaviour decreases Positive punishment Negative punishment   A coach who generally praises her players, criticises some sloppy marking. Players become aware that the coach is unhappy and will strive to avoid a repeat. A coach who usually gives lots of praise and encouragement withdraws this type of feedback. Players perceive that the coach is not happy and this acts as a type of punishment.

From these examples it is evident that there are positive and negative ways to coach. Whereas the negative approach focuses primarily on punishing unwanted behaviours, often by creating a climate of fear, the positive approach centres on looking for things that are done well and rewarding them with positive reinforcement. Depending on the approach used, players are motivated either to avoid making mistakes or to repeat desired responses. Many coaches use both punishments and reinforcements to achieve the desired effect.

Sports psychology research

Sport psychology research evidence overwhelmingly supports the use of a predominantly (80-90%) positive approach, with punishment kept to a minimum. Behavioural modification techniques based on positive reinforcements have been successfully used to increase output during training sessions, improve performance, and reduce errors.
It is important to point out that a positive approach doesn't mean being 'laid-back', having few rules and even fewer expectations of your athletes: far from it. A positive approach is as demanding as a negative one, except that rewards tend to predominate over punishments as the route to better performance.

I have met a few athletes who feel motivated by punishment. However, I have yet to meet an athlete who doesn't enjoy being on the receiving end of praise, a positive gesture - like a pat on the back.

Positive approach to coaching

Taking a positive approach to coaching is essentially about giving praise when it is merited. That means recognising and rewarding not just successful overall outcomes - ie winning - but also performance improvements, improved approximations (like a more technically correct forehand in tennis) and effort. One study showed that children who were praised for their efforts following failure were more persistent, enjoyed the task more and performed better than children praised for having high ability .

Too much of a good thing

Continuous praise is actually a bad thing - unless you are working with novices - as it devalues the reward, which is seen as too- easily obtained. In this kind of climate, players essentially switch off.

Food for Thought

Successful feedback is a matter of balance. If you are constantly focusing on people's mistakes, there is a risk that their confidence will be eroded and their motivation damaged. A little praise can go a long way to sustaining someone's motivation. If you feel it necessary to be critical or corrective in your feedback, I suggest using the 'sandwich approach' (see box below) to help sustain motivation.

The sandwich approach

Let's take an example of a football coach being critical of a striker who has missed a relatively simple chance to score. Rather than berate the player, the coach might consider something along the lines of the following feedback sandwich:

• 'That was a great run you made to create space…
• '… but it was a poor finish. You were leaning back on contact and that's why the ball lifted over the bar. Next time try to keep your head over the ball.
• 'Keep going because you are stretching their defence.'

When presented in this way, the feedback becomes more constructive by balancing praise and criticism while also providing instruction.

Why should a negative approach to coaching, using more punishment and criticism than positive reinforcement, be discouraged when there is evidence to show that punishment can help to eliminate some unwanted behaviours?(4) There are three serious drawbacks to incorporating punishment into your coaching style:

1. The predominant use of punishment normally works by creating a fear of failure, and this can often lead to performance decrements as athletes focus on the consequences of losing or making mistakes rather than on what needs to be done to be successful. Fear of failure can promote indecision, with consequent tentative responses and a tendency to choke in high-pressure situations. In hockey, for example, a winger needs to take risks by running at the full backs and committing his opponents; this will not always be successful but it only has to work once for a match- winning goal to occur. However, if the player fears a backlash from his coach if he loses the ball, he might become tentative and avoid responsibility by passing to a team mate. 'Playing it safe' is often a counterproductive tactic which has been linked to poorer performances.
2. If you are working with athletes who are attention seekers, making an example of them by punishing them in front of others can actually reinforce the behaviour you want to eliminate. Poor behaviour, such as constantly turning up late for practice, is sometimes designed to provoke a response. The best way to deal with such behaviour is on a one-to-one basis in a private setting; otherwise it is likely to recur as it gives the attention seeker exactly what he craves.
3. The predominant use of punishment as an approach to coaching doesn't promote good relations between coach and athlete. It can lead to the build-up of hostility, resentment and discouragement, resulting in loss of motivation.
   Coaches who use a predominantly negative approach HAVE often achieved great success. However, it sometimes goes unnoticed that these same coaches are exceptional tacticians or have great technical expertise. In such cases it is highly likely that their success is attributable to these qualities rather than their negative approach to coaching.

Knowing your athletes

There are some players for whom a negative approach to coaching might be effective, but you really need to know your athlete before employing such tactics.

Creating the most productive motivational climate depends on many inter-related factors, including the characteristics of the group and individuals, their preferred style of coaching, the qualities of the coach (knowledge, expertise etc), the dangers involved in a given activity and, of course, the coaching style favoured by the coach.

There are many coaches I have seen and talked to who have adopted a coaching style based on their own experiences of being coached. My advice is to think about what you are trying to achieve and whether your adopted style best suits the individuals or group you are working with.

In my experience, the best coaches are flexible and able to adapt to the requirements of different situations. This will nearly always involve criticism or punishment as well as praise, but will rely primarily on a positive approach in order to motivate players to perform at their best.

Lee Crust, PhD, BSc, PGCE is a lecturer and researcher in sport and exercise psychology at York St John College of Higher Education

Courtesy of PPonline.co.uk

References

1. Sage, G, Introduction to motor behaviour: A neuropsychological approach, 2nd edition. Addison-Wesley, 1977
2. Skinner, BF, About behaviorism. Knopf, 1974
3. Weinberg, R & Gould, D, Foundations of sport and exercise psychology, 3rd edition. Human Kinetics, 2003
4. Smith, R, Positive reinforcement, performance feedback and performance enhancement. In Applied sports psychology: personal growth to peak performance. Mount View, 2001
5. Stacy Braslau-Schneck, MA, An Animal Trainer's Introduction to Operant and Classical Conditioning
6. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis 1983; 16: 447-460
7. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1994; 78: 10991105
8. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis 1980; 13: 297-314
9. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1998; 75: 33-52
10. Smith, R & Smoll, F, Way to go, coach: A scientifically proven way approach to coaching effectiveness. Warde, 1996
11. Smith, R & Smoll, F, Athletic performance anxiety. In Handbook of social and evaluation anxiety. Plenum Press,

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